C Primer

 主页   资讯   文章   代码   电子书 

# Chapter 13. Copy Control

Exercise 13.1:

What is a copy constructor? When is it used?

A copy constructor is a constructor which first parameter is a reference to the class type and any additional parameters have default values.

When copy initialization happens and that copy initialization requires either the copy constructor or the move constructor.

  • Define variables using an =
  • Pass an object as an argument to a parameter of nonreference type
  • Return an object from a function that has a nonreference return type
  • Brace initialize the elements in an array or the members of an aggregate class
  • Some class types also use copy initialization for the objects they allocate.

Exercise 13.2:

Explain why the following declaration is illegal:

Sales_data::Sales_data(Sales_data rhs);

If declaration like that, the call would never succeed to call the copy constructor, Sales_data rhs is an argument to a parameter, thus, we'd need to use the copy constructor to copy the argument, but to copy the argument, we'd need to call the copy constructor, and so on indefinitely.

Exercise 13.3:

What happens when we copy a StrBlob? What about StrBlobPtrs?

// added a public member function to StrBlob and StrBlobPrts
long count() {
    return data.use_count(); // and wptr.use_count();
}

// test codes in main()
StrBlob str({ "hello", "world" });
std::cout << "before: " << str.count() << std::endl; // 1
StrBlob str_cp(str);
std::cout << "after: " << str.count() << std::endl;  // 2

ConstStrBlobPtr p(str);
std::cout << "before: " << p.count() << std::endl; // 2
ConstStrBlobPtr p_cp(p);
std::cout << "after: " << p.count() << std::endl; // 2

when we copy a StrBlob, the shared_ptr member's use_count add one.

when we copy a StrBlobPrts, the weak_ptr member's use_count isn't changed.(cause the count belongs to shared_ptr)

Exercise 13.4:

Assuming Point is a class type with a public copy constructor, identify each use of the copy constructor in this program fragment:

Point global;
Point foo_bar(Point arg) // 1
{
Point local = arg, *heap = new Point(global); // 2, 3
*heap = local;
Point pa[ 4 ] = { local, *heap }; // 4, 5
return *heap; // 6
}

Exercise 13.5

Exercise 13.6:

What is a copy-assignment operator? When is this operator used? What does the synthesized copy-assignment operator do? When is it synthesized?

The copy-assignment operator is function named operator= and takes an argument of the same type as the class.

This operator is used when assignment occurred.

The synthesized copy-assignment operator assigns each nonstatic member of the right-hand object to corresponding member of the left-hand object using the copy-assignment operator for the type of that member.

It is synthesized when the class does not define its own.

Exercise 13.7:

What happens when we assign one StrBlob to another? What about StrBlobPtrs?

In both cases, shallow copy will happen. All pointers point to the same address. The use_count changed the same as 13.3.

Exercise 13.8

Exercise 13.9:

What is a destructor? What does the synthesized destructor do? When is a destructor synthesized?

The destructor is a member function with the name of the class prefixed by a tilde(~).

As with the copy constructor and the copy-assignment operator, for some classes, the synthesized destructor is defined to disallow objects of the type from being destoryed. Otherwise, the synthesized destructor has an empty function body.

The compiler defines a synthesized destructor for any class that does not define its own destructor.

Exercise 13.10:

What happens when a StrBlob object is destroyed? What about a StrBlobPtr?

When a StrBlob object destroyed, the use_count of the dynamic object will decrement. It will be freed if no shared_ptr to that dynamic object.

When a StrBlobPter object is destroyed the object dynamically allocated will not be freed.

Exercise 13.11

Exercise 13.12:

How many destructor calls occur in the following code fragment?

bool fcn(const Sales_data *trans, Sales_data accum)
{
Sales_data item1(*trans), item2(accum);
return item1.isbn() != item2.isbn();
}

3 times. There are accum, item1 and item2.

Exercise 13.13

Exercise 13.14:

Assume that numbered is a class with a default constructor that generates a unique serial number for each object, which is stored in a data member named mysn. Assuming numbered uses the synthesized copy-control members and given the following function:

void f (numbered s) { cout << s.mysn << endl; }

what output does the following code produce?

numbered a, b = a, c = b;
f(a); f(b); f(c);

Three identical numbers.

Exercise 13.15:

Assume numbered has a copy constructor that generates a new serial number. Does that change the output of the calls in the previous exercise? If so, why? What output gets generated?

Yes, it does. Because, as described, the newly defined copy constructor can handle such situations as expected.Thus, the output will be three different numbers.

Exercise 13.16:

What if the parameter in f were const numbered&? Does that change the output? If so, why? What output gets generated?

Yes, the output will change. Because no copy operation happens within function f. Thus, the three Output are the same.

Exercise 13.17

Write versions of numbered and f corresponding to the previous three exercises and check whether you correctly predicted the output.

For 13.14 | For 13.15 | For 13.16

Exercise 13.18 .h | .cpp

Exercise 13.19

Exercise 13.20:

Explain what happens when we copy, assign, or destroy objects of our TextQuery and QueryResult classes from § 12.3 (p. 484).

The member (smart pointer and container) will be copied.

Exercise 13.21:

Do you think the TextQuery and QueryResult classes need to define their own versions of the copy-control members? If so, why? If not, why not? Implement whichever copy-control operations you think these classes require.

As synthesized version meet all requirements for this case, no custom version control memebers need to define. Check #304 for detail.

Exercise 13.22

Exercise 13.23:

Compare the copy-control members that you wrote for the solutions to the previous section’s exercises to the code presented here. Be sure you understand the differences, if any, between your code and ours.

Check 13.22.

Exercise 13.24:

What would happen if the version of HasPtr in this section didn’t define a destructor? What if HasPtr didn’t define the copy constructor?

If HasPtr didn't define a destructor, a memory leak would occur, compiler synthesized destructor does not manage dynamic memory. If HasPtr didn't define the copy constructor, we would get pointer-like copy behaviour. The ps pointer would be copied to the left hand side, but ps in the lhs and the rhs would still point to the same string on the heap.

Exercise 13.25:

Assume we want to define a version of StrBlob that acts like a value. Also assume that we want to continue to use a shared_ptr so that our StrBlobPtr class can still use a weak_ptr to the vector. Your revised class will need a copy constructor and copy-assignment operator but will not need a destructor. Explain what the copy constructor and copy-assignment operators must do. Explain why the class does not need a destructor.

Copy constructor and copy-assignment operator should dynamically allocate memory for its own , rather than share the object with the right hand operand.

StrBlob is using smart pointers which can be managed with synthesized destructor, If an object of StrBlob is out of scope, the destructor for std::shared_ptr will be called automatically to free the memory dynamically allocated when the use_count goes to 0.

Exercise 13.26 hpp | cpp

Exercise 13.27

Exercise 13.28 hpp | cpp

Exercise 13.29:

Explain why the calls to swap inside swap(HasPtr&, HasPtr&) do not cause a recursion loop.

swap(lhs.ps, rhs.ps); feed the version : swap(std::string*, std::string*) and swap(lhs.i, rhs.i); feed the version : swap(int, int). Both them can't call swap(HasPtr&, HasPtr&). Thus, the calls don't cause a recursion loop.

Exercise 13.30

Exercise 13.31

Exercise 13.32:

Would the pointerlike version of HasPtr benefit from defining a swap function? If so, what is the benefit? If not, why not?

@Mooophy:

Essentially, the specific avoiding memory allocation is the reason why it improve performance. As for the pointerlike version, no dynamic memory allocation anyway. Thus, a specific version for it will not improve the performance.

Exercise 13.33:

Why is the parameter to the save and remove members of Message a Folder&? Why didn’t we define that parameter as Folder? Or const Folder&?

Because these operations must also update the given Folder. Updating a Folder is a job that the Folder class controls through its addMsg and remMsg members, which will add or remove a pointer to a given Message, respectively.

Exercise 13.34 hpp | cpp

Exercise 13.35:

What would happen if Message used the synthesized versions of the copy-control members?

some existing Folders will out of sync with the Message after assignment.

Exercise 13.36 hpp | cpp

Exercise 13.37 hpp | cpp

Exercise 13.38:

We did not use copy and swap to define the Message assignment operator. Why do you suppose this is so?

@Mooophy The copy and swap is an elegant way when working with dynamicly allocated memory. In the Message class , nothing is allocated dynamically. Thus using this idiom makes no sense and will make it more complicated to implement due to the pointers that point back.

@pezy In this case, swap function is special. It will be clear two Message's folders , then swap members, and added themselves to each folders. But, Message assignment operator just clear itself, and copy the members, and added itself to each folders. The rhs don't need to clear and add to folders. So, if using copy and swap to define, it will be very inefficiency.

Exercise 13.39 hpp | cpp

Exercise 13.40 hpp | cpp

Exercise 13.41:

Why did we use postfix increment in the call to construct inside push_back? What would happen if it used the prefix increment?

|a|b|c|d|f|..............|
^          ^             ^
elements   first_free    cap

// if use alloc.construct(first_free++, "g");
|a|b|c|d|f|g|.............|
^            ^            ^
elements     first_free   cap

// if use alloc.construct(++first_free, "g");
|a|b|c|d|f|.|g|............|
^          ^ ^             ^
elements   | first_free    cap
           |
    "unconstructed"

Exercise 13.42:

Test your StrVec class by using it in place of the vector in your TextQuery and QueryResult classes (12.3, p. 484).

Exercise 13.43:

Rewrite the free member to use for_each and a lambda (10.3.2, p. 388) in place of the for loop to destroy the elements. Which implementation do you prefer, and why?

Rewrite

for_each(elements, first_free, [this](std::string &rhs){ alloc.destroy(&rhs); });

@Mooophy: The new version is better. Compared to the old one, it doesn't need to worry about the order and decrement.So more straightforward and handy. The only thing to do for using this approach is to add "&" to build the pointers to string pointers.

Exercise 13.44:

Write a class named String that is a simplified version of the library string class. Your class should have at least a default constructor and a constructor that takes a pointer to a C-style string. Use an allocator to allocate memory that your String class uses.

hpp | cpp | Test

more information to see A trivial String class that designed for write-on-paper in an interview

Exercise 13.45:

Distinguish between an rvalue reference and an lvalue reference.

Definition：

  • lvalue reference: reference that can bind to an lvalue. (Regular reference)
  • rvalue reference: reference to an object that is about to be destroyed.

We can bind an rvalue reference to expression that require conversion, to literals, or to expressions that return an rvalue, but we cannot directly bind an rvalue reference to an lvalue.

int i = 42;
int &r = i; // lvalue reference
int &&rr = i; // rvalue reference (Error: i is a lvalue)
int &r2 = i*42; // lvalue reference (Error: i*42 is a rvalue)
const int &r3 = i*42; // reference to const (bind to a rvalue)
int &&rr2 = i*42; // rvalue reference
  • lvalue : functions that return lvalue references, assignment, subscript, dereference, and prefix increment/decrement operator.
  • rvalue / const reference : functions that return a nonreferences, arithmetic, relational bitwise, postfix increment/decrement operators.

Exercise 13.46:

Which kind of reference can be bound to the following initializers?

int f();
vector<int> vi(100);
int&& r1 = f();
int& r2 = vi[0];
int& r3 = r1;
int&& r4 = vi[0] * f();

Exercise 13.47 hpp | cpp

Exercise 13.48

Exercise 13.49:

Add a move constructor and move-assignment operator to your StrVec, String, and Message classes.

Exercise 13.50:

Put print statements in the move operations in your String class and rerun the program from exercise 13.48 in 13.6.1 (p. 534) that used a vector to see when the copies are avoided.

String baz()
{
    String ret("world");
    return ret; // first avoided
}

String s5 = baz(); // second avoided

Exercise 13.51:

Although unique_ptrs cannot be copied, in 12.1.5 (p. 471) we wrote a clone function that returned a unique_ptr by value. Explain why that function is legal and how it works.

For such case, move semantics is expected rather than copy operation.That's why a unique_ptr may be returned from a function by value. Reference: [StackOverflow - returning unique pointers from functions] (http://stackoverflow.com/questions/4316727)

Exercise 13.52:

Explain in detail what happens in the assignments of the HasPtr objects on page 541. In particular, describe step by step what happens to values of hp, hp2, and of the rhs parameter in the HasPtr assignment operator.

rhs parameter is nonreference, which means the parameter is copy initialized. Depending on the type of the argument, copy initialization uses either the copy constructor or the move constructor.

lvalues are copied and rvalues are moved.

Thus, in hp = hp2;, hp2 is an lvalue, copy constructor used to copy hp2. In hp = std::move(hp2);, move constructor moves hp2.

Exercise 13.53:

As a matter of low-level efficiency, the HasPtr assignment operator is not ideal. Explain why. Implement a copy-assignment and move-assignment operator for HasPtr and compare the operations executed in your new move-assignment operator versus the copy-and-swap version.

nothing to say, just see the versus codes:

hpp | cpp | Test

see more information at this question && answer.

Exercise 13.54:

What would happen if we defined a HasPtr move-assignment operator but did not change the copy-and-swap operator? Write code to test your answer.

error: ambiguous overload for 'operator=' (operand types are 'HasPtr' and 'std::remove_reference<HasPtr&>::type { aka HasPtr }')
hp1 = std::move(*pH);
^

Exercise 13.55:

Add an rvalue reference version of push_back to your StrBlob.

void push_back(string &&s) { data->push_back(std::move(s)); }

Exercise 13.56:

What would happen if we defined sorted as:

Foo Foo::sorted() const & {
Foo ret(*this);
return ret.sorted();
}

recursion and stack overflow.

@miaojiuchen: Because the local variable ret here is an Lvalue, so when we call ret.sorted(), we are actually not calling the member function Foo Foo::sorted() && as expected, but Foo Foo::sorted() const & instead. As a result, the code will be trapped into a recursion and causes a deadly stack overflow.

Exercise 13.57:

What if we defined sorted as:

Foo Foo::sorted() const & { return Foo(*this).sorted(); }

ok, it will call the move version.

Exercise 13.58:

Write versions of class Foo with print statements in their sorted functions to test your answers to the previous two exercises.

Exercise 13.58